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1 Introduction: poverty and environment in practice

¹ For additional information about the centre and its programmes see: www.idrc.ca

² For an independent review and assessment of the CBNRM programme, see Gonsalves and Mendoza (2003).

2 Community-based natural resource management: a research approach to rural poverty and environmental degradation

¹ An example is the editing and distribution of a nine-volume compendium of key readings and bibliographies on topics related to social science concepts, as well as methods of agriculture and NRM (IDRC, 1999).

3 Community-based natural resource management and decentralized governance in Ratanakiri, Cambodia

¹ Activities in Yeak Loam focused on community-based protected area management, using tourism to generate income for protection.

4 Participatory local planning for resource governance in the Tam Giang lagoon, Vietnam

¹ The researchers were from Hue University of Sciences, Hue University of Agriculture and Forestry and the Department of Fisheries of Thua Thien-Hue province. Phase 1 of the project (1995–7) was funded by CIDA/IDRC/VISED. Phase 2 (1998– 2001) was funded by CIDA/IDRC/VEEM.

² The national average poverty rate in rural areas was 35.6 per cent. The poverty line is defined as the per-person per-day expenditure of buying a local food basket equivalent to 2,100 calories (definition used by World Bank).

³ It was approved by the National Assembly on 26 November 2003, effective 1 July 2004.

⁴ Core villagers are the key village informants and/or influential people who are representatives to community groups, and who are the most experienced farmers and fishers.

⁵ Decree 130 (April 2003) by People's Committee of Quang Dien district on reordering the fish-trap corrals.

6 Co-management of Pastureland in Mongolia

¹ For more information on gender issues, see H. Ykhanbai et al., 2003.

7 Exclusion, accommodation and community-based natural resource management: legitimizing the enclosure of a community fishery in southern Laos

¹ Small-scale Wetland Indigenous Fisheries Management Project, Provincial Livestock and Fisheries Office, Champassak Province and Living Aquatic Resource Research Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Laos. This paper is based on research for an MA in Sustainable Development, Chiang Mai University, Thailand (Tubtim, 2001).

² I refer to these small wetlands as 'backswamps', an idiomatic English term which is both descriptive of their origin and analogous to Lao terminology.

³ The prohibited fishing activities are: scooping or draining water from the backswamp; blocking off areas for fishing; and using two-person bait nets, mung (fine mesh nets), or khaa (basket traps), jan (drop-door traps) or soum (conical basket traps). It is also forbidden to fell or cut roots of trees that are close to the edge of the backswamp. The main fishing gear employed include hook and line, floating hook, cast nets, gill nets, one-person bait nets and handled scoop nets.

8 Building networks of support for community-based coastal resource management in Cambodia

¹ Cambodian social relations take place within authoritarian, hierarchical constructs (see Meas and O'Leary, 2001). According to Buddhist thinking, merit accumulated in previous lives helps to explain one's current social position; therefore, those with power are thought to belong in power and it is an accepted social concept that one's fate should be in the hands of others (Chandler, 1991).

11 Strengthening local voices to inform national policy: community forestry in Cambodia

¹ See McKenney and Prom Tola (2002) for a review and analysis of forest concession experiences in Cambodia.

² This is an international NGO that later took on the role of independent monitor of forest crimes for the government.

³ In mid-2002, the FA reported that 14 companies held contracts for 19 concessions covering approximately 3.9 million ha; 15 concessions covering approximately 3.0 million ha had been cancelled (Cambodia Government, 2002). However, deconcessioned forests were reportedly logged out and no longer of commercial timber value, so the disposition of these forests remained unclear.

⁴ Department of Nature, Conservation and Protection.

⁵ Within the Department of Forestry and Wildlife (DFW) under the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.

⁶ Such as the FAO-supported community forestry project in Siem Reap and CARERE/PLG support for commmunity forestry in Ratanakiri.

12 Harmonizing ancestral domain with local governance in the Cordillera of the northern Philippines

¹ See Rood and Casambre (1994) and Prill-Brett (1994, 2001) for a discussion of the legal context for the change in the Philippine state's attitude towards indigenous people's land rights.

² See Prill-Brett (1988, 1992, 1994); Mendoza (1992); Rood and Casambre (1994); and Rood (1994).

³ Common property refers to those situations where there are multiple users of a resource who hold divided title but undivided shares in the resource (Appell, 1991). According to Appell, a divided title may either be a parallel right, a right held by multiple title holders, or a stratified right. The latter is divided by type, such as residual or use rights, and is vested in jural persons.

⁴ This is the smallest unit of the Philippine government system, roughly corresponding in scale with a neighbourhood or small rural community, which is responsible for the organization of many community development and public service functions based on budgets allocated by senior governments. The barangay captain is the senior administrative official at this level.

⁵ The municipality is a political unit of the government that has political jurisdiction over several distinct communities, or barangays, but which may not correctly represent the unique geographical or cultural characteristics of the traditional ili.

⁶ Philippines Government (1997). Our copy has no date, but the signatory was supposed to be the DENR Secretary, Victor Ramos. Hence, we surmise that this may be a document drafted in 1997 or 1998.

⁷ The province is a politico-administrative unit composed of municipalities and cities.

14 Creating options for the poor through participatory research

¹ Workshop comment by Tony Beck, May 2004.

² A research framework makes assumptions about what constitutes knowledge, that is, how and what researchers will learn during their enquiry, and adopts procedures for data collection, analysis and writing (Creswell, 2003).

³ Dr Kristalina Georgieva, Director of the Environment Department of the World Bank, cited in Gonsalves and Mendoza, 2003: 60.

⁴ The pragmatic approach that framed the CBNRM projects finds agreement with the conclusion of the August 2000 meeting of scientists from 13 of the 16 CGIAR centres in Penang, Malaysia. Discussing the role of integrated natural resource management (INRM), they concluded it was a way of doing development-oriented research that often must deal with the effects of agricultural advances that resonate across the landscape. They agreed on a number of essential characteristics in undertaking such research: a systems approach is required; work must be process-oriented at multiple scales involving multiple stakeholders; it must be capable of scaling up and out; and it is crucial to employ new tools and methods. Most importantly, the group recognized the need for a problem analysis phase that primarily has to be a participatory process.

15 Exclusive, moi? Natural resource management, poverty, inequality and gender in Asia

¹ Numbers below a poverty line, usually constructed by income level. For discussion of conceptual issues with different poverty measures, see Beck (1994).

² The Gini coefficient is the standard measure of income distribution across the entire population of a country, where 0 = absolute equality (all incomes equal), 1 = absolute inequality (one person captures all income).

³ In much of Asia the head-count ratio remains the main measure of poverty. While politicians and administrators may claim that poverty is being reduced because the head-count ratio is decreasing, this ignores the complex patterns of changes in livelihoods that occur during the processes of privatization and marketization.

⁴ The authors have relied on the self-reporting of IDRC partners in much of this chapter, and findings have not in most cases been independently verified.

⁵ There is an extensive literature on gender relations in Asia which we do not have the scope to review here; some of this literature has also touched on CBNRM and gender relations; see Reichrath (2005).

16 Community-based natural resource management communities in action

¹ In the social sciences, bounded notions of community were particularly strong in the fields of social and cultural ecology (Goldenberg and Haines, 2000). In turn, these schools were the basis of many anthropological studies of community-environment interactions in Southeast Asia from the 1950s through the 1970s (Peluso, Vandergeest and Potter, 1995). These studies and their assumptions about community and ecological stability have had a strong influence on CBNRM advocates who also emphasize the idea that stable rural communities have lived in balance with their environments for a long time.

² Personal communication, John Graham, Senior Program Officer, IDRC.

17 Shaping policy from the field

¹ The IDRC research programme supporting the various projects reported here included policy innovation as one of its objectives (IDRC, 2000). Therefore, as researchers began to speculate on what should be done about the institutional problems uncovered through their participatory research projects, IDRC staff encouraged them to explore the policy dimensions of their work further. Of course, the support and encouragement of the funding agency is an important preequisite to reorienting any long-term research project.

² For a useful review of policy implementation literature, see Najam (1995), who concludes there is broad agreement that the rational distinction between political and administrative decision-making breaks down in practice. The author cites Majone and Wildavsky (1978), who wrote: 'To implement a policy is to change it.'

³ Those who are familiar with policy-making processes generally recognize that while they may be well organized, they are seldom predictable, linear or strictly analytical in nature. Policy systems are driven by time and information constraints, opportunity, surprise, political tactics, and communications just as much as analysis. (Neilson, 2001; Wildavsky, 1979; Gyawali, 2001)

⁴ For example, see the recent review of the forestry sector in Cambodia headed by a donor representative and the head of the FA. See: www.bigpond.com.kh/users/dfwjica/Forest-Sector-Review.pdf (accessed December 2004).

⁵ The differences between these various concepts need not concern us in this chapter, because we do not adopt a particular definition here. See Neilson, 2001 for an overview of the literature on the various concepts used. Also see Lindayati, 2002; Keeley and Scoones, 2003; Lindquist, 2001.

⁶ See Keeley and Scoones, 2003: 21; Wrangham, 2002; Neilson, 2001: 21–3. They make a distinction between policy narrative and discourse, which refers to a wider set of values and way of thinking.

⁷ To the extent that policy narratives justify arrangements that favour certain interests, their continued existence may also be explained by underlying interests and power relationships. This does not, however, mean that discourses as such do not play an important role. Ideas do matter (also see Lindayati, 2002).

⁸ Note that other organizations whose main objective is policy advocacy and influence may adopt different strategies for longer-term leverage. Here we focus on the links between participatory research and policy.

⁹ This section draws on the authors' experiences in monitoring these projects, and on the insights of IDRC colleagues, frequently documented in their trip reports from project visits.

18 Conclusions: community-based natural resource management in action

¹ For example, methods and tools for CBCRM were collected, reviewed and assembled in a sourcebook format (IIRR, 1998), subsequently also translated into Vietnamese.

² This is consistent with the conclusions of Douthwaite (2002) on user roles in innovation.

³ A number of the research organizations represented in this collection are collaborating on CBNRM curriculum development already.

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